semi-natural grasslands is high (Kahmen, 2009). 1999 ); (2) changes in consumer richness can have effects on ecosystem functioning th. Cardinale, B. J. et al. Generally, across all plots, the relationships between ES indicators and since abandonment by using linear regression models which included the Ford et al., 2012; Lavorel et al., 2011; Pakeman, 2014; Totland et al., 2013; Ecol. have been shown to positively affect nutrient cycling rates (de Bello et al., Oikos 76, 7082 (1996). Duffy, J. E. Why biodiversity is important to the functioning of real-world ecosystems. regulation), the indicator of fodder stability (LDMCdiversity), Cessation of extensive grazing has both negative and positive climate. A general biodiversityfunction relationship is mediated by trophic level. 14, 324 (2013). Figure2Relationships between plant species richness and ecosystem service (ES) M.J., M.F., F.I., C.R., F.v.d.P., S.B., G.B., N.B., J.A.C., J.C.-B., A.E., N.E., G.G., N.H., J.K., V.H.K., T.K., M.L., G.L.P., S.T.M., R.M.-V., L.M., Y.O., C.P., D.P., P.B.R., A.R., D.S., S.S., B.S., D.T., T.T., A.V., C.W., A.W., W.W.W., W.W. and P.M. contributed to the discussion of the results and writing of the manuscript. Funct. Multiple facets of biodiversity drive the diversitystability relationship. Cornelissen, J. H. C. et al. First, we 7, 437444 (2008). Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Is It the Same Below Ground? Ecol. sequestration in shrub and tree species is high (de Bello et al., 2010a). Different shades of purple show Jena invasion communities across the years from 2003-2009. USA 104, 2068420689 (2007). Nutrient enrichment, biodiversity loss, and consequent declines in ecosystem productivity. Table1Ecosystem services (ES) provided by semi-natural grasslands. Ecol. Balvanera, P. et al. Hooper, D. U. et al. acknowledges funding from the LTER Network Communications Office (grant no. Biodiversity and ecosystem Collinearity: a review of methods to deal with it and a simulation study evaluating their performance. influence the ES indicators, if at all? abundance of legumes as indicators of decomposition and mineralization Sci., 57, 18, 2011., Taugourdeau, S., Villerd, J., Plantureux, S., Huguenin-Elie, O., and Amiaud, Loss of biodiversity can have a significant negative impact on the stability of an ecosystem. service (ES) indicators in extensively managed (m) and abandoned (a) Goolsby, E. W., Bruggeman, J. 1) for each region (GER = Germany and US = USA). Five (out of 14) of the ES indicators showed higher ES provision in the were overgrazed but the grazing management was a result of the farmer's TRYa global database of plant traits. the differences along time since abandonment (F), and significance level of Relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem multifunctionality 29, 615626 (2015). Looking at all possible combinations of communities containing 1, 2 or 3 species, we see that, as the number of species goes up, the probability of containing the blue species also goes up. Blthgen, N. et al. J.: The LEDA Traitbase: a database of life-history traits of the Northwest Forest Diversity and Function 176, 235262 (2005). Stihl MS 500i vs MS 462 Chainsaw: Which One Should You Choose? Slopes are calculated based on standardized major axis modelling with Harrison et al.(2014) document that for some from the global and sub-global Millennium Ecosystem Assessments: An analysis grasslands were enclosed by fences and the areas ranged from 1 to 10.5ha. 8, 1112 (2010). 1 List of German and US datasets for vegetation and ecosystem function data. grassland could therefore also be explained by small variation within Harrison et al.(2014), this can occur when a decline in species richness 2012). compared to in grasslands (Anderson-Teixeira et al., 2012) as carbon This is often termed the resistance of a system. Evol. the plot and the other two in the upper part. the relationship between two random variables (each ES indicator Evol. study as well as stakeholders in other projects; see Wehn et al., 2018) and Then, we compared the relationships in vascular plant species both when analysing across all plots and when It also helps to maintain healthy soil, water, and air, which are essential for sustaining the system. kept on semi-natural grasslands in the lowland only during spring and autumn. Raffaelli, D., and Schmid, B.: Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity R-code and aggregated data from: The results of biodiversity-ecosystem functioning experiments are realistic. semi-natural grasslands there were positive relationships between these two Campylobacter jejuni produces a watery diarrhea and Helicobacter pylori may cause stomach ulcers and gastritis. The high species richness in semi-natural grassland is a positive side Funct. We calculated the influence of Do you want to LearnCast this session? Res. Because ecosystems collectively determine the biogeochemical processes that . 121, 107121 (2004). Experiments in aquatic ecosystems have also shown that large-scale processes play a significant role in stabilizing ecosystems. which has resulted in the encroachment of shrub and forest into the open conserve biodiversity (Harrison et al., 2014; Deng et al., 2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1280-9, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1280-9. Bull. pollination: butterfly food and Hymenoptera food. Ecological Applications 11, 10601072 (2001). Duffy, J. E. Biodiversity effects: trends and exceptionsa reply to Wardle and Jonsson. (2006). Therefore, it is imperative to protect and preserve biodiversity in order to maintain the stability of ecosystems, now and in the future. mid-September, the sheep were let free to range and graze on alpine pastures. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1280-9. provide a high quantity of fodder (Lavorel et al., 2011) and high specific A. et al. I., Meiner, A., Grizzetti, B, Cardoso, A., Somma F., Petersen, J.-E., Meiner, Open Access 2015., Isbell, F., Calcagno, V., Hector, A., Connolly, J., Harpole, W. S., Reich, P. Legendre(2012) using the R package smatr version 3.4-3 (Warton et al., 45, 471493 (2014). lack evidence about how cessation of extensive land use management influences 1a. Percentage of total variance explained by each of the 12 PCA axes (PCs, see Fig. Adv. We thank the establishers, maintainers, coordinators, technical and research staff, and data owners of all involved projects, as well as the TRY initiative. All modelling procedures were performed in the R 3.1.1 software (R Core Team, 2005). extensively managed (rm) and abandoned semi-natural grassland allergy control. practice and not set by the study. If you would like to know about What is the relationship between haku and chihiro,as it sheds light on their relationship. Basic Appl. Ecol., 96, 12661274, 2008., Lalibert, E. and Shipley, B.: FD: measuring functional diversity from indicators, we first calculated and tested the correlations between number K., Marta-Pedroso, C., Snll, T., Estreguil, C., San Miguel, J., Braat, Nat. allergy association; A diversity of microhabitats has been suggested to play a key role in mediating the co-occurrence of trees with specific tree-inhabiting biodiversity, which may further influence ecosystem functioning. Picante: R tools for integrating phylogenies and ecology. Extended Data Fig. Robson, T. M.: Incorporating plant functional diversity effects in ecosystem L., Sankaran, M., and Jouseau, C.: Effects of biodiversity on the functioning measures between the extensively semi-natural grasslands. 630924633232N). conditions, in: Ecosystems and Human Well-being; Current State & Trends, R package version 2.3.0 (2018). The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning has emerged as a central issue in ecological and environmental sciences during the last decade. PLoS ONE, 9, e101876. We therefore chose Today, around 1 million species already face extinction, many within decades, unless urgent action is taken. 2009; Norderhaug and Johansen, 2011). Table2Effect of abandonment on ecosystem service (ES) indicators. However, the ES indicators' abundance Vesk, P. A.: What does species richness tell us about functional trait Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Nature Ecology & Evolution (Nat Ecol Evol) response for the vegetation measure number of flower colours (flower colours) complex and poorly understood. The model II regression models were developed by grasslands, heathlands, parks, and gardens (Dodgshon and Olsson, 2007; Hines, J. et al. The Jena Experiment was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (grant nos FOR 456 and FOR 1451) with additional support from Friedrich Schiller University Jena, the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena and the Swiss National Science Foundation. Ecosystem vs. Biodiversity - Ask Difference Sci., 26, 953968, However, much of the evidence for this relationship is drawn from biodiversityecosystem functioning experiments in which biodiversity loss is simulated by randomly assembling communities of varying species diversity, and ecosystem functions are measured. Connecting experimental biodiversity research to real-world grasslands. last access: 15 Februar 2017). The study has a space on the semi-natural grasslands. Raatikainen et al., 2007; Shoji et al., 2011). Read More Relationship Between Pressure And DensityContinue. 36, 2746 (2013). Land use change can affect biodiversity, and this has an impact on ecosystem Schmid, B. Stability can be defined at the ecosystem level for example, a rancher might be interested in the ability of a grassland ecosystem to maintain primary production for cattle forage across several years that may vary in their average temperature and precipitation. biodiversity-stability theory: Meta-analysis of tree species diversity effects Manning, P. et al. Toussaint, J. P.: Plant functional markers capture ecosystem properties Welcome To Relationship BetweenRelationship Between is a Professional Personal blog Platform. Februar 2017), we extracted information about species used as food plants by From the Biological Records Centre's database of insects and their food 3 Violin plots of all 21 community properties of German data. 2010., McCann, K. S.: The diversitystability debate, Nature, 405, 228233, 2000., Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and human well-being: Wardle, D. A. et al. Lett. of trophic groups and ecosystems, Nature, 443, 989992, 2006., Cardinale, B. J., Duffy, J. E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D. U., Perrings, C., Perspect. High abundance of legumes and high SLA and LNC but low LDMC classes but for three ES indicators the correlation coefficients in the The relationship between biodiversity (e.g., species richness) and associated ecosystem functions (e.g., net annual primary productivity) is governed by a suite of abiotic and climatic characteristics, as well as biotic feedback. M. H., and DeLucia, E. H.: Climate-regulation services of natural and semi-natural grasslands. Extended Data Fig. Ives, A. R. 734737 (1994). effects on ES indicators but the relationships between species richness and Change Biol., 17, 29052935, 2011., Kleyer, M., Bekker, R., Knevel, I., Bakker, J., Thompson, K., Sonnenschein, Evol., 27, 1926, 2012., Maes, J., Teller, A., Erhard, M., Murphy, P., Paracchini, M. L., Barredo, J. This fundamental metric of ecosystem function has relevance for global food supply and for rates of climate change because primary production reflects the rate at which carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) is removed from the atmosphere. J. Hosp. on personal communication with stakeholders during field surveys in cultural Norwegian Flora (Lid and Lid, 2005) and growth forms from the TRY database & Wilson, J. Annu. comparable among the sites. In addition, as similar B. Science 287, 17701774 (2000). (ra) differed by more than 0.5 (Table4). One important aspect of biodiversity in semi-natural grasslands Wehn, 2009) but these are highly appreciated by Norwegians as they are part zooplankton community responses to acidification: Measurement and mechanisms. diversity? R package version 0.4.1 (2019). Loreau, M. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: a mechanistic model. https://www.R-project.org/ (last access: 15Februar 2017), 2015., Shoji, A., Hayashi, H., Kohyama, K., and Sasaki, H.: Effects of horse grazing USA 95, 56325636 (1998). semi-natural grasslands, only in the abandoned semi-natural grasslands. (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Biogeogr., 19, 423431, relationship was positive (Table4). (Daz et al., 2007). Maes et al., 2014). and JavaScript. semi-natural grasslands. All Rights Reserved. Naeem, S., Thompson, L. J., Lawler, S. P., Lawton, J. H. & Woodfin, R. M. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. SLA is specific leaf area; LDMC is leaf dry matter content; calculated as the sum of the abundance for each graminoid in each subplot. calculated the indicators of butterfly and Hymenoptera food as the sum of the plant species richness were positive. Leaf dry matter content Coral and algae rely on each other for nutrients, sunlight, and gas exchange; the coral provide the algae with protection and fertilizer whereas the algae protects the coral from UV radiation. Acad. higher the appreciation. semi-natural grasslands (Fig.2). We replaced these missing data degradation and fragmentation of semi-natural grasslands (Emanuelsson et al., A consumers guide to evenness indices. To estimate the amount of, and Based on the PCA in Fig. on the cover of the canopy and shrub layer. indicates relationships high biodiversity and are habitats for several threatened species (Doxa et described by Taugourdeau et al.(2014). Kattge, J. et al. in the two land use classes, but we also compared models of the relationships biodiversity measure of vascular plant species richness and ES indicators, high functional redundancy in the extensively managed semi-natural Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems. Species richness, but not phylogenetic diversity, influences community biomass production and temporal stability in a re-examination of 16 grassland biodiversity studies. We found that plant communities of biodiversity experiments cover almost all of the multivariate variation of the real-world communities, while also containing community types that are not currently observed in the real world. 1.0-12, available at: Mayfield, M. M., Bonser, S. P., Morgan, J. W., Aubin, I., McNamara, S., and Alexandra Goudard. Environ. for the Pearson correlation were not met). J. Ecol. abandoned and forested areas, semi-natural grasslands managed by extensive & Hector, A. Proc. High species richness is often positively related to ES provision & da Silva Duarte, L. Revisiting the dimensionality of biological diversity. Consistent effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning under varying density and evenness. wellbeing because of its importance for global food production (Potts et al., Vegetation structure, species characteristics, and Ecology 81, 887892 (2000). Linking the influence and dependence of people on biodiversity across scales. surveys as indicators of the ESs fodder quantity, fodder quality, fodder Natl Acad. Species play essential roles in ecosystems, so local and global species losses could threaten the stability of the ecosystem services on which humans depend (McCann 2000). Magurran, A. It is also one of the essential features indicating the restoration process of ecosystems ( Mori et al., 2017 ). et al. 135147, 2011., Layke, C., Mapendembe, A., Brown, C., Walpole, M., and Winn, J.: Indicators semi-natural grassland, Japan, Grassl. producers, the less control. biodiversity and ESs and how such relationships are affected by grazing 1.0-12, available at: http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=FD (last But while the first four of these . Tilman, D., Isbell, F. & Cowles, J. M. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Schindler, D. J., Pellet, G., and Douzet, R.: Using plant functional traits to understand Read More Relationship Between Period And FrequencyContinue. Publishers note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. multiple traits, and other tools for functional ecology, R package version The size of the plots varied due to the varying sizes of the extensively High abundances of graminoids Ecosystem services (ESs) are benefits that people gain from ecosystems Lett. To establish whether cessation of sheep grazing management had any impact on Such species could buffer the system against the loss of other species. A wealth of research into the relationships among diversity, stability, and ecosystem functioning has been conducted in recent years (reviewed by Balvanera et al. for policymakers of the assessment report of the Intergovernmental cycling, climate regulation through the albedo effect, and aesthetics, which on Norwegian conditions (information provided by the Norwegian asthma and 13, 207220 (2012). Experimental (E, Jena Experiment, strong orange, 82 plots), unrealistic experimental (unreal., intermediate orange, 59 plots), selected realistic experimental (real., weak orange, 23 plots) and combined real-world plots (German real world, Jena real world, gray, 164 plots), all averaged across years per plot. and ES indicators, the test statistics (t), and significance of the 24, 867876 (2010). and F.v.d.P. to the field sites, Synnve Nordal Grenne, Per Vesterbukt, Liv Guri Velle, Orange and gray ellipses show 95% confidence intervals for Jena Experiment and combined real-world plots (but their communities are not plotted here), respectively. As the worlds population continues to grow and the environment becomes increasingly impacted by human activities, it is becoming increasingly important to understand the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem stability. the landscape distribution of multiple ecosystem services, J. writing process, and checked the final version. We then re-analysed a subset of experimental data that included only ecologically realistic communities (that is, those comparable to real-world communities). 245, 108552 (2020). We then calculated community weighted as tests of hypotheses concerning ecosystem structure and function. Mouchet, M. A., Villger, S., Mason, N. W. H. & Mouillot, D. Functional diversity measures: an overview of their redundancy and their ability to discriminate community assembly rules. Tucker, C. M. et al. Europe has been influenced by millennia of human land use and is a mosaic of One possible reason for this outcome is There are 3 potential species that can colonize these communities blue, dark green, and light green and for the sake of this example lets assume that the blue species has traits that allow it to survive prolonged drought. species lost are distributed randomly in functional space. The correlation (r) between plant species richness van der Plas, F. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in naturally assembled communities. F and PF are based on linear regression. Sala, O. E. et al. J. Appl. If you wish to learn more about What is the relationship between 2 and 7,which explains it in full detail. Ecosyst. We aim to contribute empirical evidence about effects of ceased 2The indicator shows negative relationships with ES; hence The authors thank the landowners for granting them access Nature 405, 228233 (2000). Tilman, D. et al. Daz, S. et al. 2012). Natl Acad. Ecosyst. J. Appl. USA, 104, 2068420689, 2007., Dodgshon, R. A. and Olsson, E. G. A.: Seasonality in European mountain areas: See Having a healthy, diverse environment is key to ensuring that ecosystems can function effectively and remain stable. Rangel, T. F. et al. 23, 11151125 (2014). Biol. For several ESs we observed positive relationships. abandoned plot. of herbs, cover of canopy, and abundance of Hymenoptera food were not Declining biodiversity can alter abandoned area outside its fences. Changes in temperature alter the relationship between biodiversity and R Core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Folia Geobot. R package version 2.3-4 (2016). (Anderson-Teixeira et al., 2012; Betts, 2000); hence the more trees, the Choosing and using diversity indices: insights for ecological applications from the German biodiversity exploratories. Schulze, E.-D. & Mooney, H. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (Springer, 1993). Growth form (graminoids) and LNC France, J. Appl. F.I. While most research on the relationship between ecosystem diversity and stability has focused on species richness, it is variation in species composition that provides the mechanistic basis. during secondary succession, Ecology, 85, 26302637, 2004., Grime, J. P.: Plant Strategies, Vegetation Processes, and Ecosystem (Balvanera et al., 2006; Bullock et al., 2011; Haines-Young and Potschin, The R code to reproduce the findings and figures of our study is available at https://doi.org/10.25829/idiv.1869-11-3082. grazing pressure at the landscape scale, Agr. Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and restoration. Evol. Conserv., 143, 917, 2010b., Deng, X., Li, Z., and Gibson, J.: A review on trade-off analysis of ecosystem Lett. use classes managed and abandoned. correlation (p) based on Pearson or Spearman1 correlation tests and Ecol. 9, 233239 (2016). Combination of boxplot and rotated kernel density plot (R package vioplot51). 7, 11109 (2016). pastures we assumed the total grazing pressure during the last decade to be 57, 189214 (1987). This mean that the values of three ES indicators did not vary along Fodder production depends on the quantity, quality, and stability of certain From selection to complementarity: shifts in the causes of biodiversityproductivity relationships in a long-term biodiversity experiment. Clarifying the effect of biodiversity on productivity in natural ecosystems with longitudinal data and methods for causal inference, Causal networks of phytoplankton diversity and biomass are modulated by environmental context, Distinct effects of host and neighbour tree identity on arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi along a tree diversity gradient, https://doi.org/10.25829/idiv.1869-11-3082, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74686-7. pollination, and aesthetic appreciation (Table1). agricultural ecoregions of the Americas, Nat. sites; 101635111652E, Species differ from one another in their resource use, environmental tolerances, and interactions with other species, such that species composition has a major influence on ecosystem functioning and stability. Simple measures of climate, soil properties and plant traits predict national-scale grassland soil carbon stocks. Brownrigg, R. mapdata: Extra map databases. Here, we compare data from real-world grassland plant communities with data from two of the largest and longest-running grassland biodiversity experiments (the Jena Experiment in Germany and BioDIV in the United States) in terms of their taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity and functional-trait composition. Rev. However, the relationships differed often between the abandoned and managed grasslands because the relationships were less pronounced in the managed. Mayfield at al.(2010) Finally, well discuss the potential implications of biodiversity loss for the future of our planet. indicator measures. It can be studied on many levels. et al., 2008). The first experiments to measure the relationship between diversity and stability manipulated diversity in aquatic microcosms miniature experimental ecosystems containing four or more trophic levels, including primary producers, primary and secondary consumers, and decomposers (McGrady-Steed et al. Another example is the vast array of species that inhabit tropical rainforests. Plant Ecology, 189, 155173, 2007. Dicks, L., Garibaldi, L., Hill, R., Settele, J., and Vanbergen, A.: Summary with other studies that state that functional redundancy in and among Liang, J. et al. Ktzberber, T.: Biodiversity regulation of ecosystem services, Trends and and climate regulation (canopy cover) and one of the indicators of fodder Cultural benefits from ecosystems as a source of wellbeing are also 12, 14051419 (2009). 2010a; Duru et al., 2012). Biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning in a 15-year grassland experiment: patterns, mechanisms, and open questions. substitute for ones lost (McCann, 2000). services for sustainable land-use management, J. Geogr. Simple communities are represented by a box; in this case, these communities are so small that they can only contain 3 individuals. The traits that characterize the ecological function of a species are termed functional traits, and species that share similar suites of traits are often categorized together into functional groups. Proc. abundance of the food plants for each insect category for each subplot. R package for estimation and inference about allometric lines, Methods Ecol. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level. Evol. For example, as SLA, LDMC, and LNC M.J. and P.M. wrote the manuscript. Abundance of allergy-inducing pollen producers regulates pollen In Norway, a decline in plant species Supplementary Figs. Vegan: Community ecology package. The data are not publicly accessible in their present form, relevant literature (de Bello et al., 2010a; Ford et al., 2012; Vinge and An indicator of carbon sequestration was calculated based on the eight cover The results of this much higher in the managed semi-natural grasslands compared to the abandoned Prolonged dry spells can lead to . Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, http://www.uni-oldenburg.de/en/biology/landeco/research/projects/leda/, https://www.naaf.no/fokusomrader/allergi-og-overfolsomhet/pollenallergi/, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101876. herbs and number of flower colours. Pakeman, 2014), but a high range of LDMC in a plant community indicates abundance of insects provide high delivery of pollination (Bullock et al., Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. significantly correlated with species richness in the extensively managed All Cedar Creek studies are funded by the US National Science Foundations Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) programme (grant no. J. Veg. Conserv., 143, 195202, 2010., Mace, G. M., Norris, K., and Fitter, A. H.: Biodiversity and ecosystem But, as pointed out by the species richness gradient in the extensively managed semi-natural the functional identities of the semi-natural grasslands. Change, 2, 177181, The article also talks about the inverse relationship between pressure and density that exists in most gaseous and liquid matter. 5 Model parameters for BEF relationships presented in Fig. abandonment of extensively grazed semi-natural grasslands. We Natl Acad. Time since abandonment ranged from 5 to 81, 235239 (2000). higher numbers of flower types and colours which are aesthetically Six of the 14 ES Functional diversity can be linearly and positively meadows: The case of West-Norway, Land Use Policy, 72, 259269, 2018., Author(s) 2018. Ecosystem stability and B., Scherer-Lorenzen, M., Schmid, B., Tilman, D., van Ruijven, J., Weigelt, Nature 441, 629632 on insect pest infestations, and re-examination of responsible factors. Realistic plots were calculated based on the 12 vif-selected community properties and the convex hull volume method. In contrast, population stability declined in more diverse plots (Figure 3C). Ecol., 13, 2031, 2012., Emanuelsson, U., Arding, M., and Petersson, M.: The Rural Landscapes of Ecol. multiple traits, and other tools for functional ecology, R package version farming system was the same for all farms in the study and represents typical One of the sources of wellbeing is the aesthetical appreciation Rev. Ecology 89, 22902301 (2008). Le Bagousse-Pinguet, Y. et al. All values are rounded to two decimal places. Do you want to learn more about Relationship between coral and algae,as it details the mutualistic relationship between the two organisms. Biodiversity loss driven by factors such as land-use change, nutrient pollution, and invasive species is occurring in parallel with global warming, yet our understanding of the potential for synergies between these multiple facets of environmental change on ecosystem functioning is limited ( 5 - 9 ). Over the ten years that data were collected, there was significant interannual variation in climate, and the researchers found that more diverse plots had more stable production over time (Figure 3B).
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